Rondo and theme and variations – free course

Two forms for two different pleasures. The rondo plays on the pleasure of return: a refrain comes back again and again, separated by contrasting episodes. Theme and variations plays on the pleasure of transformation: the same theme keeps returning, but transformed each time. Either way, you develop an essential composing skill: doing a lot with a little.

1. The rondo: ABACA

A rondo alternates a refrain (A) with episodes (B, C…). You find it everywhere, from Couperin's rondeaux to the finales of Mozart's and Beethoven's sonatas.

A	B	A	C	A (+ coda)
Refrain, C major	Episode 1, G major	Refrain	Episode 2, A minor or F major	Refrain, ending

Three rules for a good rondo:

The refrain must be instantly recognisable: a characteristic rhythm, a singable tune, a clear ending on a perfect cadence. If the listener does not recognise it within two bars, the rondo does not work.
The episodes must contrast with each other and with the refrain: B can be more lyrical, C more dramatic (often in minor).
The end of each episode prepares the return: a half cadence (a stop on the dominant) creates anticipation for the refrain.

2. Theme and variations

You state a short, simple theme, then repeat it several times, changing one aspect each time. The skeleton (the main notes and the harmony) stays recognisable: that is what holds everything together. Mozart wrote twelve variations on "Ah vous dirai-je, maman" (Twinkle, Twinkle): a childishly simple theme, and endless invention.

Here is our 4-bar theme. Memorise its structural notes: C–E–G–E, F–A–G, E–C–D–B, C.

M:4/4
L:1/4
Q:1/4=90
K:C
%%staves {RH LH}
V:RH clef=treble
V:LH clef=bass
[V:RH] "C"C E G E | "F"F A "C/E"G2 | "Am"E C "G"D B, | "C"C4 |]
[V:LH] C,2 C,2 | F,2 E,2 | A,,2 G,,2 | C,4 |]

Variation 1: ornamental

Fill the gaps between structural notes with passing notes and neighbour notes. The theme is still there, on the strong beats, but it now "flows" in eighth notes.

M:4/4
L:1/8
Q:1/4=90
K:C
%%staves {RH LH}
V:RH clef=treble
V:LH clef=bass
[V:RH] C2 EF G2 FE | FG AB c B G2 | ED CE DC B,D | C6 z2 |]
[V:LH] C,4 C,4 | F,4 E,4 | A,,4 G,,4 | C,8 |]

Variation 2: rhythmic

Same notes, new rhythm: dotted values give a march-like character, and the left hand starts to bounce.

M:4/4
L:1/8
Q:1/4=100
K:C
%%staves {RH LH}
V:RH clef=treble
V:LH clef=bass
[V:RH] C3 E G3 E | F3 A G4 | E3 C D3 B, | C8 |]
[V:LH] C,2 [E,G,]2 C,2 [E,G,]2 | F,2 [A,C]2 E,2 [G,C]2 | A,,2 [C,E,]2 G,,2 [B,,D,]2 | C,2 [E,G,]2 C,4 |]

Variation 3: change of mode

We move to C minor: just use the three-flat key signature (E♭, A♭, B♭) and keep B natural, the leading tone, in bar 3. Played slower, the same theme becomes solemn, almost tragic. This is the most spectacular variation for the least effort.

M:4/4
L:1/4
Q:1/4=60
K:Cm
%%staves {RH LH}
V:RH clef=treble
V:LH clef=bass
[V:RH] "Cm"C E G E | "Fm"F A "Cm/Eb"G2 | "Ab"E C "G"D =B, | "Cm"C4 |]
[V:LH] C,2 C,2 | F,2 E,2 | A,,2 G,,2 | C,4 |]

Variation 4: change of texture

The theme moves up an octave and the left hand switches to an Alberti bass (root–fifth–third–fifth). Suddenly you are listening to a classical sonatina.

M:4/4
L:1/8
Q:1/4=110
K:C
%%staves {RH LH}
V:RH clef=treble
V:LH clef=bass
[V:RH] c2 e2 g2 e2 | f2 a2 g4 | e2 c2 d2 B2 | c8 |]
[V:LH] C,G,E,G, C,G,E,G, | F,A,CA, E,G,CG, | A,,E,C,E, G,,D,B,,D, | C,G,E,G, C,4 |]

There are other levers too: a character variation (a waltz in 3/4, a lullaby, a funeral march), a contrapuntal variation (the theme in the left hand, a new melody above it), a harmonic variation (same notes, new chords). A convincing set usually goes from simple to brilliant, with a slow minor variation near the end, followed by a final virtuoso or triumphant one.

Tip: first write down your theme's "skeleton" (one note per strong beat, plus the chords). Every variation is just a different way of dressing that skeleton. If a variation loses the skeleton, the listener loses the thread.

Common mistakes: a theme that is too long or too complicated (8 to 16 simple bars are enough, as Mozart proved); variations that change everything at once (nothing is recognisable any more); or, conversely, timid variations where only one tiny detail changes. Change one or two parameters boldly each time.

Your workshop

Write an 8-bar theme in C major in the ABC editor (or take the one from this lesson and extend it). End it with a perfect cadence.
Write down its skeleton on paper: the notes on the strong beats and the chord of each bar.
Write three variations: an ornamental one (eighth notes), a minor one (slower), and one with a new accompaniment (Alberti, waltz or broken chords).
Using the same theme as a refrain, build a little ABACA rondo: write an episode B in G major and an episode C in A minor, 8 bars each, ending on a half cadence.
Listen to the whole: is the refrain recognisable by its second bar every time it returns? Can you describe each variation's "personality" in one sentence?